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Modeling Baselines

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Motivating the use of baselines for iterative modeling.
Goku Mohandas
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Intuition

Baselines are simple benchmarks which pave the way for iterative development:

  • Rapid experimentation via hyperparameter tuning thanks to low model complexity.
  • Discovery of data issues, false assumptions, bugs in code, etc. since model itself is not complex.
  • Pareto's principle: we can achieve decent performance with minimal initial effort.

Process

Here is the high level approach to establishing baselines:

  1. Start with the simplest possible baseline to compare subsequent development with. This is often a random (chance) model.
  2. Develop a rule-based approach (when possible) using IFTTT, auxiliary data, etc.
  3. Slowly add complexity by addressing limitations and motivating representations and model architectures.
  4. Weigh tradeoffs (performance, latency, size, etc.) between performant baselines.
  5. Revisit and iterate on baselines as your dataset grows.

We can also baseline on your dataset. Instead of using a fixed dataset and iterating on the models, choose a good baseline and iterate on the dataset:

  • remove or fix data samples (FP, FN)
  • prepare and transform features
  • expand or consolidate classes
  • incorporate auxiliary datasets
  • identify unique slices to boost

Tradeoffs to consider

When choosing what model architecture(s) to proceed with, what are important tradeoffs to consider? And how can we prioritize them?

Show answer

Prioritization of these tradeoffs depends on your context.

  • performance: consider coarse-grained and fine-grained (ex. per-class) performance.
  • latency: how quickly does your model respond for inference.
  • size: how large is your model and can you support it's storage.
  • compute: how much will it cost ($, carbon footprint, etc.) to train your model?
  • interpretability: does your model need to explain its predictions?
  • bias checks: does your model pass key bias checks?
  • time to develop: how long do you have to develop the first version?
  • time to retrain: how long does it take to retrain your model? This is very important to consider if you need to retrain often.
  • maintenance overhead: who and what will be required to maintain your model versions because the real work with ML begins after deploying v1. You can't just hand it off to your site reliability team to maintain it like many teams do with traditional software.

Application

Each application's baseline trajectory varies based on the task and motivations. For our application, we're going to follow this path:

  1. Random
  2. Rule-based
  3. Simple ML
  4. CNN w/ embeddings

We'll motivate the need for slowly adding complexity from both the representation (ex. embeddings) and architecture (ex. CNNs) views, as well as address the limitation at each step of the way.

Note

If you're unfamiliar with of the modeling concepts here, be sure to check out the Foundations lessons.

We'll first set up some functions that we'll be using across the different baseline experiments. 

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from sklearn.metrics import precision_recall_fscore_support
import torch

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def set_seeds(seed=1234):
    """Set seeds for reproducibility."""
    np.random.seed(seed)
    random.seed(seed)
    torch.manual_seed(seed)
    torch.cuda.manual_seed(seed)
    torch.cuda.manual_seed_all(seed) # multi-GPU

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def get_data_splits(df, train_size=0.7):
    """"""
    # Get data
    X = df.text.to_numpy()
    y = df.tags

    # Binarize y
    label_encoder = LabelEncoder()
    label_encoder.fit(y)
    y = label_encoder.encode(y)

    # Split
    X_train, X_, y_train, y_ = iterative_train_test_split(
        X, y, train_size=train_size)
    X_val, X_test, y_val, y_test = iterative_train_test_split(
        X_, y_, train_size=0.5)

    return X_train, X_val, X_test, y_train, y_val, y_test, label_encoder
We'll define a Trainer object which we will use for training, validation and inference. 
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class Trainer(object):
    def __init__(self, model, device, loss_fn=None, optimizer=None, scheduler=None):

        # Set params
        self.model = model
        self.device = device
        self.loss_fn = loss_fn
        self.optimizer = optimizer
        self.scheduler = scheduler

    def train_step(self, dataloader):
        """Train step."""
        # Set model to train mode
        self.model.train()
        loss = 0.0

        # Iterate over train batches
        for i, batch in enumerate(dataloader):

            # Step
            batch = [item.to(self.device) for item in batch]  # Set device
            inputs, targets = batch[:-1], batch[-1]
            self.optimizer.zero_grad()  # Reset gradients
            z = self.model(inputs)  # Forward pass
            J = self.loss_fn(z, targets)  # Define loss
            J.backward()  # Backward pass
            self.optimizer.step()  # Update weights

            # Cumulative Metrics
            loss += (J.detach().item() - loss) / (i + 1)

        return loss

    def eval_step(self, dataloader):
        """Validation or test step."""
        # Set model to eval mode
        self.model.eval()
        loss = 0.0
        y_trues, y_probs = [], []

        # Iterate over val batches
        with torch.inference_mode():
            for i, batch in enumerate(dataloader):

                # Step
                batch = [item.to(self.device) for item in batch]  # Set device
                inputs, y_true = batch[:-1], batch[-1]
                z = self.model(inputs)  # Forward pass
                J = self.loss_fn(z, y_true).item()

                # Cumulative Metrics
                loss += (J - loss) / (i + 1)

                # Store outputs
                y_prob = torch.sigmoid(z).cpu().numpy()
                y_probs.extend(y_prob)
                y_trues.extend(y_true.cpu().numpy())

        return loss, np.vstack(y_trues), np.vstack(y_probs)

    def predict_step(self, dataloader):
        """Prediction step."""
        # Set model to eval mode
        self.model.eval()
        y_probs = []

        # Iterate over val batches
        with torch.inference_mode():
            for i, batch in enumerate(dataloader):

                # Forward pass w/ inputs
                inputs, targets = batch[:-1], batch[-1]
                z = self.model(inputs)

                # Store outputs
                y_prob = torch.sigmoid(z).cpu().numpy()
                y_probs.extend(y_prob)

        return np.vstack(y_probs)

    def train(self, num_epochs, patience, train_dataloader, val_dataloader):
        best_val_loss = np.inf
        for epoch in range(num_epochs):
            # Steps
            train_loss = self.train_step(dataloader=train_dataloader)
            val_loss, _, _ = self.eval_step(dataloader=val_dataloader)
            self.scheduler.step(val_loss)

            # Early stopping
            if val_loss < best_val_loss:
                best_val_loss = val_loss
                best_model = self.model
                _patience = patience  # reset _patience
            else:
                _patience -= 1
            if not _patience:  # 0
                print("Stopping early!")
                break

            # Logging
            print(
                f"Epoch: {epoch+1} | "
                f"train_loss: {train_loss:.5f}, "
                f"val_loss: {val_loss:.5f}, "
                f"lr: {self.optimizer.param_groups[0]['lr']:.2E}, "
                f"_patience: {_patience}"
            )
        return best_model

Note

Our dataset is small so we'll train using the whole dataset but for larger datasets, we should always test on a small subset (after shuffling when necessary) so we aren't wasting time on compute. Here's how we can easily do this:

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# Shuffling since projects are chronologically organized
if shuffle:
    df = df.sample(frac=1).reset_index(drop=True)

# Subset
if num_samples:
    df = df[:num_samples]

Random

motivation: We want to know what random (chance) performance looks like. All of our subsequent baselines should perform better than this.

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# Set seeds
set_seeds()

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# Get data splits
preprocessed_df = df.copy()
preprocessed_df.text = preprocessed_df.text.apply(preprocess, lower=True, stem=True)
X_train, X_val, X_test, y_train, y_val, y_test, label_encoder = get_data_splits(preprocessed_df)
print (f"X_train: {X_train.shape}, y_train: {y_train.shape}")
print (f"X_val: {X_val.shape}, y_val: {y_val.shape}")
print (f"X_test: {X_test.shape}, y_test: {y_test.shape}")


X_train: (1000,), y_train: (1000, 35)
X_val: (227,), y_val: (227, 35)
X_test: (217,), y_test: (217, 35)

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# Label encoder
print (label_encoder)
print (label_encoder.classes)

<LabelEncoder(num_classes=35)>
['attention', 'autoencoders', 'computer-vision', 'convolutional-neural-networks', 'data-augmentation', 'embeddings', 'flask', 'generative-adversarial-networks', 'graph-neural-networks', 'graphs', 'huggingface', 'image-classification', 'interpretability', 'keras', 'language-modeling', 'natural-language-processing', 'node-classification', 'object-detection', 'pretraining', 'production', 'pytorch', 'question-answering', 'regression', 'reinforcement-learning', 'representation-learning', 'scikit-learn', 'segmentation', 'self-supervised-learning', 'tensorflow', 'tensorflow-js', 'time-series', 'transfer-learning', 'transformers', 'unsupervised-learning', 'wandb']

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# Generate random predictions
y_pred = np.random.randint(low=0, high=2, size=(len(y_test), len(label_encoder.classes)))
print (y_pred.shape)
print (y_pred[0:5])

(217, 35)
[[0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1]
 [0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1]
 [1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1]
 [0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0]
 [0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0]]

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# Evaluate
metrics = precision_recall_fscore_support(y_test, y_pred, average="weighted")
performance = {"precision": metrics[0], "recall": metrics[1], "f1": metrics[2]}
print (json.dumps(performance, indent=2))

{
  "precision": 0.12590604458654545,
  "recall": 0.5203426124197003, ← as expected to be ~0.5
  "f1": 0.18469743862395557
}

We made the assumption that there is an equal probability for whether an input has a tag or not but this isn't true. Let's use the train split to figure out what the true probability is.

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# Percentage of 1s (tag presence)
tag_p = np.sum(np.sum(y_train)) / (len(y_train) * len(label_encoder.classes))
print (tag_p)

0.06291428571428571


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# Generate weighted random predictions
y_pred = np.random.choice(
    np.arange(0, 2), size=(len(y_test), len(label_encoder.classes)),
    p=[1-tag_p, tag_p])

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# Validate percentage
np.sum(np.sum(y_pred)) / (len(y_pred) * len(label_encoder.classes))


0.06240947992100066

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# Evaluate
metrics = precision_recall_fscore_support(y_test, y_pred, average="weighted")
performance = {"precision": metrics[0], "recall": metrics[1], "f1": metrics[2]}
print (json.dumps(performance, indent=2))

{
  "precision": 0.1121905967477629,
  "recall": 0.047109207708779445,
  "f1": 0.05309836327850377
}

limitations: we didn't use any of the signals from our inputs to affect our predictions, so nothing was learned.

Rule-based

motivation: we want to use signals in our inputs (along with domain expertise and auxiliary data) to determine the labels.

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# Set seeds
set_seeds()

Unstemmed

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# Get data splits
preprocessed_df = df.copy()
preprocessed_df.text = preprocessed_df.text.apply(preprocess, lower=True)
X_train, X_val, X_test, y_train, y_val, y_test, label_encoder = get_data_splits(preprocessed_df)

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# Restrict to relevant tags
print (len(tags_dict))
tags_dict = {tag: tags_dict[tag] for tag in label_encoder.classes}
print (len(tags_dict))


400
35

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# Map aliases
aliases = {}
for tag, values in tags_dict.items():
    aliases[preprocess(tag)] = tag
    for alias in values["aliases"]:
        aliases[preprocess(alias)] = tag
aliases

{'ae': 'autoencoders',
 'attention': 'attention',
 'autoencoders': 'autoencoders',
 'cnn': 'convolutional-neural-networks',
 'computer vision': 'computer-vision',
 ...
 'unsupervised learning': 'unsupervised-learning',
 'vision': 'computer-vision',
 'wandb': 'wandb',
 'weights biases': 'wandb'}


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def get_classes(text, aliases, tags_dict):
    """If a token matches an alias,
    then add the corresponding tag
    class (and parent tags if any)."""
    classes = []
    for alias, tag in aliases.items():
        if alias in text:

            # Add tag
            classes.append(tag)

            # Add parent tags
            for parent in tags_dict[tag]["parents"]:
                classes.append(parent)

    return list(set(classes))

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# Sample
text = "This project extends gans for data augmentation specifically for object detection tasks."
get_classes(text=preprocess(text), aliases=aliases, tags_dict=tags_dict)


['object-detection',
 'data-augmentation',
 'generative-adversarial-networks',
 'computer-vision']


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# Prediction
y_pred = []
for text in X_test:
    classes = get_classes(text, aliases, tags_dict)
    y_pred.append(classes)

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# Encode labels
y_pred = label_encoder.encode(y_pred)

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# Evaluate
metrics = precision_recall_fscore_support(y_test, y_pred, average="weighted")
performance = {"precision": metrics[0], "recall": metrics[1], "f1": metrics[2]}
print (json.dumps(performance, indent=2))


{
    "precision": 0.8527917293434535,
    "recall": 0.38066760941576216,
    "f1": 0.48975323243320396,
    "num_samples": 480.0
}

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# Inspection
tag = "transformers"
print (json.dumps(performance["class"][tag], indent=2))

{
  "precision": 0.886542414851697,
  "recall": 0.430406852248394,
  "f1": 0.556927275918014
}

Stemmed

We're looking for exact matches with the aliases which isn't always perfect, for example: 

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print (aliases[preprocess("gan")])
# print (aliases[preprocess('gans')]) # this won't find any match
print (aliases[preprocess("generative adversarial networks")])
# print (aliases[preprocess('generative adversarial network')]) # this won't find any match


generative-adversarial-networks
generative-adversarial-networks

We don't want to keep adding explicit rules but we can use stemming to represent different forms of a word uniformly, for example: 

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print (porter.stem("democracy"))
print (porter.stem("democracies"))


democraci
democraci

So let's now stem our aliases as well as the tokens in our input text and then look for matches. 

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# Get data splits
preprocessed_df = df.copy()
preprocessed_df.text = preprocessed_df.text.apply(preprocess, lower=True, stem=True)
X_train, X_val, X_test, y_train, y_val, y_test, label_encoder = get_data_splits(preprocessed_df)

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# Map aliases
aliases = {}
for tag, values in tags_dict.items():
    aliases[preprocess(tag, stem=True)] = tag
    for alias in values["aliases"]:
        aliases[preprocess(alias, stem=True)] = tag
aliases


{'ae': 'autoencoders',
 'attent': 'attention',
 'autoencod': 'autoencoders',
 'cnn': 'convolutional-neural-networks',
 'comput vision': 'computer-vision',
 ...
 'vision': 'computer-vision',
 'wandb': 'wandb',
 'weight bias': 'wandb'}

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# Checks (we will write proper tests soon)
print (aliases[preprocess("gan", stem=True)])
print (aliases[preprocess("gans", stem=True)])
print (aliases[preprocess("generative adversarial network", stem=True)])
print (aliases[preprocess("generative adversarial networks", stem=True)])

generative-adversarial-networks
generative-adversarial-networks
generative-adversarial-networks
generative-adversarial-networks

We'll write proper tests for all of these functions when we move our code to Python scripts. 

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# Sample
text = "This project extends gans for data augmentation specifically for object detection tasks."
get_classes(text=preprocess(text, stem=True), aliases=aliases, tags_dict=tags_dict)


['object-detection',
 'data-augmentation',
 'generative-adversarial-networks',
 'computer-vision']


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# Prediction
y_pred = []
for text in X_test:
    classes = get_classes(text, aliases, tags_dict)
    y_pred.append(classes)

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# Encode labels
y_pred = label_encoder.encode(y_pred)

Evaluation

We can look at overall and per-class performance on our test set.

Note

When considering overall and per-class performance across different models, we should be aware of Simpson's paradox where a model can perform better on every class subset but not overall.

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# Evaluate
metrics = precision_recall_fscore_support(y_test, y_pred, average="weighted")
performance = {"precision": metrics[0], "recall": metrics[1], "f1": metrics[2]}
print (json.dumps(performance, indent=2))

{
  "precision": 0.907266867724384,
  "recall": 0.485838779956427,
  "f1": 0.6120705676738784
}

Can we explain the high precision and low recall?

We achieved very high precision at the expensive of low recall. Why?

Show answer

Rule-based approaches can yield labels with high certainty when there is an absolute condition match (high precision) but it fails to generalize or learn implicit patterns to capture the rest of the cases (low recall).

Inference

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# Infer
text = "Transfer learning with transformers for self-supervised learning"
print (preprocess(text, stem=True))
get_classes(text=preprocess(text, stem=True), aliases=aliases, tags_dict=tags_dict)

transfer learn transform self supervis learn
['self-supervised-learning',
 'transfer-learning',
 'transformers',
 'natural-language-processing']

Now let's see what happens when we replace the word transformers with BERT. Sure we can add this as an alias but doing these kinds of ad-hoc updates can quickly add overhead. This is where it makes sense to learn from the data as opposed to creating explicit rules. 

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# Infer
text = "Transfer learning with BERT for self-supervised learning"
print (preprocess(text, stem=True))
get_classes(text=preprocess(text, stem=True), aliases=aliases, tags_dict=tags_dict)


transfer learn bert self supervis learn
['self-supervised-learning', 'transfer-learning']

limitations: we failed to generalize or learn any implicit patterns to predict the labels because we treat the tokens in our input as isolated entities.

Note

We would ideally spend more time tuning our model because it's so simple and quick to train. This approach also applies to all the other models we'll look at as well.

Simple ML

motivation:

  • representation: use term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) to capture the significance of a token to a particular input with respect to all the inputs, as opposed to treating the words in our input text as isolated tokens.
  • architecture: we want our model to meaningfully extract the encoded signal to predict the output labels.

So far we've treated the words in our input text as isolated tokens and we haven't really captured any meaning between tokens. Let's use term frequency–inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) to capture the significance of a token to a particular input with respect to all the inputs.

\[ w_{i, j} = \text{tf}_{i, j} * log(\frac{N}{\text{df}_i}) \]

Variable Description
\(w_{i, j}\) tf-idf weight for term \(i\) in document \(j\)
\(\text{tf}_{i, j}\) # of times term \(i\) appear in document \(j\)
\(N\) total # of documents$
\(\text{df}_i\) # of documents with token \(i\) 

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from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn.ensemble import GradientBoostingClassifier
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
from sklearn.multiclass import OneVsRestClassifier
from sklearn.neighbors import KNeighborsClassifier
from sklearn.svm import LinearSVC

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from sklearn import metrics
from sklearn.feature_extraction.text import TfidfVectorizer
from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, precision_score, recall_score
from sklearn.metrics import precision_recall_curve
from sklearn.preprocessing import MultiLabelBinarizer

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# Set seeds
set_seeds()

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# Get data splits
preprocessed_df = df.copy()
preprocessed_df.text = preprocessed_df.text.apply(preprocess, lower=True, stem=True)
X_train, X_val, X_test, y_train, y_val, y_test, label_encoder = get_data_splits(preprocessed_df)

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# Tf-idf
vectorizer = TfidfVectorizer()
print (X_train[0])
X_train = vectorizer.fit_transform(X_train)
X_val = vectorizer.transform(X_val)
X_test = vectorizer.transform(X_test)
print (X_train.shape)
print (X_train[0]) # scipy.sparse.csr_matrix


albument fast imag augment librari easi use wrapper around librari
(1000, 2654)
  (0, 190)  0.34307733697679055
  (0, 2630) 0.3991510203964918
  (0, 2522) 0.14859192074955896
  (0, 728)  0.29210630687446
  (0, 1356) 0.4515371929370289
  (0, 217)  0.2870036535570893
  (0, 1157) 0.18851186612963625
  (0, 876)  0.31431481238098835
  (0, 118)  0.44156912440424356


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def fit_and_evaluate(model):
    """Fit and evaluate each model."""
    model.fit(X_train, y_train)
    y_pred = model.predict(X_test)
    metrics = precision_recall_fscore_support(y_test, y_pred, average="weighted")
    return {"precision": metrics[0], "recall": metrics[1], "f1": metrics[2]}

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# Models
performance = {}
performance["logistic-regression"] = fit_and_evaluate(OneVsRestClassifier(
    LogisticRegression(), n_jobs=1))
performance["k-nearest-neighbors"] = fit_and_evaluate(
    KNeighborsClassifier())
performance["random-forest"] = fit_and_evaluate(
    RandomForestClassifier(n_jobs=-1))
performance["gradient-boosting-machine"] = fit_and_evaluate(OneVsRestClassifier(
    GradientBoostingClassifier()))
performance["support-vector-machine"] = fit_and_evaluate(OneVsRestClassifier(
    LinearSVC(), n_jobs=-1))
print (json.dumps(performance, indent=2))


{
  "logistic-regression": {
    "precision": 0.633369022127052,
    "recall": 0.21841541755888652,
    "f1": 0.3064204603390899
  },
  "k-nearest-neighbors": {
    "precision": 0.7410281119097024,
    "recall": 0.47109207708779444,
    "f1": 0.5559182508714337
  },
  "random-forest": {
    "precision": 0.7722866712160075,
    "recall": 0.38329764453961457,
    "f1": 0.4852512297132596
  },
  "gradient-boosting-machine": {
    "precision": 0.8503271303309295,
    "recall": 0.6167023554603854,
    "f1": 0.7045318461336975
  },
  "support-vector-machine": {
    "precision": 0.8938397993500261,
    "recall": 0.5460385438972163,
    "f1": 0.6527334570244009
  }
}

limitations:

  • representation: TF-IDF representations don't encapsulate much signal beyond frequency but we require more fine-grained token representations.
  • architecture: we want to develop models that can use better represented encodings in a more contextual manner.

Distributed training

All the training we need to do for our application happens on one worker with one accelerator (GPU), however, we'll want to consider distributed training for very large models or when dealing with large datasets. Distributed training can involve:

  • data parallelism: workers received different slices of the larger dataset.
    • synchronous training uses AllReduce to aggregate gradients and update all the workers weights at the end of each batch (synchronous).
    • asynchronous training uses a universal parameter server to update weights as each worker trains on its slice of data (asynchronous).
  • model parallelism: all workers use the same dataset but the model is split amongst them (more difficult to implement compared to data parallelism because it's difficult to isolate and combine signal from backpropagation).

There are lots of options for applying distributed training such as with PyTorch's distributed package, Ray, Horovd, etc.

CNN w/ Embeddings

motivation:

  • representation: we want to have more robust (split tokens to characters) and meaningful embedding-based representations for our input tokens.
  • architecture: we want to process our encoded inputs using convolution (CNN) filters that can learn to analyze windows of embedded tokens to extract meaningful signal.

Set up

We'll set up the task by setting seeds for reproducibility, creating our data splits abd setting the device. 

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import math
import torch
import torch.nn as nn
import torch.nn.functional as F

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# Set seeds
set_seeds()

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# Get data splits
preprocessed_df = df.copy()
preprocessed_df.text = preprocessed_df.text.apply(preprocess, lower=True)
X_train, X_val, X_test, y_train, y_val, y_test, label_encoder = get_data_splits(preprocessed_df)
X_test_raw = X_test  # use for later

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# Split DataFrames
train_df = pd.DataFrame({"text": X_train, "tags": label_encoder.decode(y_train)})
val_df = pd.DataFrame({"text": X_val, "tags": label_encoder.decode(y_val)})
test_df = pd.DataFrame({"text": X_test, "tags": label_encoder.decode(y_test)})

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# Set device
cuda = True
device = torch.device("cuda" if (
    torch.cuda.is_available() and cuda) else "cpu")
torch.set_default_tensor_type("torch.FloatTensor")
if device.type == "cuda":
    torch.set_default_tensor_type("torch.cuda.FloatTensor")
print (device)


cuda

Tokenizer

We're going to tokenize our input text as character tokens so we can be robust to spelling errors and learn to generalize across tags. (ex. learning that RoBERTa, or any other future BERT based archiecture, warrants same tag as BERT).

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class Tokenizer(object):
    def __init__(self, char_level, num_tokens=None,
                 pad_token="<PAD>", oov_token="<UNK>",
                 token_to_index=None):
        self.char_level = char_level
        self.separator = "" if self.char_level else " "
        if num_tokens: num_tokens -= 2 # pad + unk tokens
        self.num_tokens = num_tokens
        self.pad_token = pad_token
        self.oov_token = oov_token
        if not token_to_index:
            token_to_index = {pad_token: 0, oov_token: 1}
        self.token_to_index = token_to_index
        self.index_to_token = {v: k for k, v in self.token_to_index.items()}

    def __len__(self):
        return len(self.token_to_index)

    def __str__(self):
        return f"<Tokenizer(num_tokens={len(self)})>"

    def fit_on_texts(self, texts):
        if not self.char_level:
            texts = [text.split(" ") for text in texts]
        all_tokens = [token for text in texts for token in text]
        counts = Counter(all_tokens).most_common(self.num_tokens)
        self.min_token_freq = counts[-1][1]
        for token, count in counts:
            index = len(self)
            self.token_to_index[token] = index
            self.index_to_token[index] = token
        return self

    def texts_to_sequences(self, texts):
        sequences = []
        for text in texts:
            if not self.char_level:
                text = text.split(" ")
            sequence = []
            for token in text:
                sequence.append(self.token_to_index.get(
                    token, self.token_to_index[self.oov_token]))
            sequences.append(np.asarray(sequence))
        return sequences

    def sequences_to_texts(self, sequences):
        texts = []
        for sequence in sequences:
            text = []
            for index in sequence:
                text.append(self.index_to_token.get(index, self.oov_token))
            texts.append(self.separator.join([token for token in text]))
        return texts

    def save(self, fp):
        with open(fp, "w") as fp:
            contents = {
                "char_level": self.char_level,
                "oov_token": self.oov_token,
                "token_to_index": self.token_to_index
            }
            json.dump(contents, fp, indent=4, sort_keys=False)

    @classmethod
    def load(cls, fp):
        with open(fp, "r") as fp:
            kwargs = json.load(fp=fp)
        return cls(**kwargs)

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# Tokenize
char_level = True
tokenizer = Tokenizer(char_level=char_level)
tokenizer.fit_on_texts(texts=X_train)
vocab_size = len(tokenizer)
print (tokenizer)


<Tokenizer(num_tokens=39)>

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tokenizer.token_to_index

{' ': 2,
 '0': 30,
 '1': 31,
 '2': 26,
 ...
 '<PAD>': 0,
 '<UNK>': 1,
 ...
 'x': 25,
 'y': 21,
 'z': 27}

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# Convert texts to sequences of indices
X_train = np.array(tokenizer.texts_to_sequences(X_train))
X_val = np.array(tokenizer.texts_to_sequences(X_val))
X_test = np.array(tokenizer.texts_to_sequences(X_test))
preprocessed_text = tokenizer.sequences_to_texts([X_train[0]])[0]
print ("Text to indices:\n"
    f"  (preprocessed) → {preprocessed_text}\n"
    f"  (tokenized) → {X_train[0]}")

Text to indices:
  (preprocessed) → hugging face achieved 2x performance boost qa question answering distilbert node js
  (tokenized) → [18 17 15 15  4  5 15  2 19  7 12  3  2  7 12 18  4  3 22  3 14  2 26 25
  2 13  3  8 19 10  8 16  7  5 12  3  2 20 10 10  9  6  2 30  7  2 30 17
  3  9  6  4 10  5  2  7  5  9 23  3  8  4  5 15  2 14  4  9  6  4 11 20
  3  8  6  2  5 10 14  3  2 28  9]

Data imbalance

We'll factor class weights in our objective function (binary cross entropy with logits) to help with class imbalance. There are many other techniques such as over sampling from underrepresented classes, undersampling, etc. but we'll cover these in a separate unit lesson on data imbalance.

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# Class weights
counts = np.bincount([label_encoder.class_to_index[class_] for class_ in all_tags])
class_weights = {i: 1.0/count for i, count in enumerate(counts)}
print (f"class counts: {counts},\nclass weights: {class_weights}")

class counts: [120  41 388 106  41  75  34  73  51  78  64  51  55  93  51 429  33  69
  30  51 258  32  49  59  57  60  48  40 213  40  34  46 196  39  39],
class weights: {0: 0.008333333333333333, 1: 0.024390243902439025, 2: 0.002577319587628866, 3: 0.009433962264150943, 4: 0.024390243902439025, 5: 0.013333333333333334, 6: 0.029411764705882353, 7: 0.0136986301369863, 8: 0.0196078431372549, 9: 0.01282051282051282, 10: 0.015625, 11: 0.0196078431372549, 12: 0.01818181818181818, 13: 0.010752688172043012, 14: 0.0196078431372549, 15: 0.002331002331002331, 16: 0.030303030303030304, 17: 0.014492753623188406, 18: 0.03333333333333333, 19: 0.0196078431372549, 20: 0.003875968992248062, 21: 0.03125, 22: 0.02040816326530612, 23: 0.01694915254237288, 24: 0.017543859649122806, 25: 0.016666666666666666, 26: 0.020833333333333332, 27: 0.025, 28: 0.004694835680751174, 29: 0.025, 30: 0.029411764705882353, 31: 0.021739130434782608, 32: 0.00510204081632653, 33: 0.02564102564102564, 34: 0.02564102564102564}

Datasets

We're going to place our data into a Dataset and use a DataLoader to efficiently create batches for training and evaluation.

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def pad_sequences(sequences, max_seq_len=0):
    """Pad sequences to max length in sequence."""
    max_seq_len = max(max_seq_len, max(len(sequence) for sequence in sequences))
    padded_sequences = np.zeros((len(sequences), max_seq_len))
    for i, sequence in enumerate(sequences):
        padded_sequences[i][:len(sequence)] = sequence
    return padded_sequences

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class CNNTextDataset(torch.utils.data.Dataset):
    def __init__(self, X, y, max_filter_size):
        self.X = X
        self.y = y
        self.max_filter_size = max_filter_size

    def __len__(self):
        return len(self.y)

    def __str__(self):
        return f"<Dataset(N={len(self)})>"

    def __getitem__(self, index):
        X = self.X[index]
        y = self.y[index]
        return [X, y]

    def collate_fn(self, batch):
        """Processing on a batch."""
        # Get inputs
        batch = np.array(batch, dtype=object)
        X = batch[:, 0]
        y = np.stack(batch[:, 1], axis=0)

        # Pad inputs
        X = pad_sequences(sequences=X, max_seq_len=self.max_filter_size)

        # Cast
        X = torch.LongTensor(X.astype(np.int32))
        y = torch.FloatTensor(y.astype(np.int32))

        return X, y

    def create_dataloader(self, batch_size, shuffle=False, drop_last=False):
        return torch.utils.data.DataLoader(
            dataset=self,
            batch_size=batch_size,
            collate_fn=self.collate_fn,
            shuffle=shuffle,
            drop_last=drop_last,
            pin_memory=True)

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# Create datasets
filter_sizes = list(range(1, 11))
train_dataset = CNNTextDataset(
    X=X_train, y=y_train, max_filter_size=max(filter_sizes))
val_dataset = CNNTextDataset(
    X=X_val, y=y_val, max_filter_size=max(filter_sizes))
test_dataset = CNNTextDataset(
    X=X_test, y=y_test, max_filter_size=max(filter_sizes))
print ("Data splits:\n"
    f"  Train dataset:{train_dataset.__str__()}\n"
    f"  Val dataset: {val_dataset.__str__()}\n"
    f"  Test dataset: {test_dataset.__str__()}\n"
    "Sample point:\n"
    f"  X: {train_dataset[0][0]}\n"
    f"  y: {train_dataset[0][1]}")


Data splits:
  Train dataset: <Dataset(N=1000)>
  Val dataset: <Dataset(N=227)>
  Test dataset: <Dataset(N=217)>
Sample point:
  X: [ 7 11 20 17 16  3  5  6  7  6  4 10  5  9  2 19  7  9  6  2  4 16  7 14
  3  2  7 17 14 16  3  5  6  7  6  4 10  5  2 11  4 20  8  7  8 21  2  3
  7  9 21  2 17  9  3  2 23  8  7 13 13  3  8  2  7  8 10 17  5 15  2 11
  4 20  8  7  8  4  3  9]
  y: [0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0]

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# Create dataloaders
batch_size = 64
train_dataloader = train_dataset.create_dataloader(
    batch_size=batch_size)
val_dataloader = val_dataset.create_dataloader(
    batch_size=batch_size)
test_dataloader = test_dataset.create_dataloader(
    batch_size=batch_size)
batch_X, batch_y = next(iter(train_dataloader))
print ("Sample batch:\n"
    f"  X: {list(batch_X.size())}\n"
    f"  y: {list(batch_y.size())}")

Sample batch:
  X: [64, 186]
  y: [64, 35]

Model

We'll be using a convolutional neural network on top of our embedded tokens to extract meaningful spatial signal. This time, we'll be using many filter widths to act as n-gram feature extractors. If you're not familiar with CNNs be sure to check out the CNN lesson where we walkthrough every component of the architecture.

Let's visualize the model's forward pass.

  1. We'll first tokenize our inputs (batch_size, max_seq_len).
  2. Then we'll embed our tokenized inputs (batch_size, max_seq_len, embedding_dim).
  3. We'll apply convolution via filters (filter_size, vocab_size, num_filters) followed by batch normalization. Our filters act as character level n-gram detecors. We have three different filter sizes (2, 3 and 4) and they will act as bi-gram, tri-gram and 4-gram feature extractors, respectivelyy.
  4. We'll apply 1D global max pooling which will extract the most relevant information from the feature maps for making the decision.
  5. We feed the pool outputs to a fully-connected (FC) layer (with dropout).
  6. We use one more FC layer with softmax to derive class probabilities.

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# Arguments
embedding_dim = 128
num_filters = 128
hidden_dim = 128
dropout_p = 0.5

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class CNN(nn.Module):
    def __init__(self, embedding_dim, vocab_size, num_filters, filter_sizes,
                 hidden_dim, dropout_p, num_classes, padding_idx=0):
        super(CNN, self).__init__()

        # Initialize embeddings
        self.embeddings = nn.Embedding(
                embedding_dim=embedding_dim, num_embeddings=vocab_size,
                padding_idx=padding_idx)

        # Conv weights
        self.filter_sizes = filter_sizes
        self.conv = nn.ModuleList(
            [nn.Conv1d(in_channels=embedding_dim,
                       out_channels=num_filters,
                       kernel_size=f) for f in filter_sizes])

        # FC weights
        self.dropout = nn.Dropout(dropout_p)
        self.fc1 = nn.Linear(num_filters*len(filter_sizes), hidden_dim)
        self.fc2 = nn.Linear(hidden_dim, num_classes)

    def forward(self, inputs, channel_first=False):

        # Embed
        x_in, = inputs
        x_in = self.embeddings(x_in)
        if not channel_first:
            x_in = x_in.transpose(1, 2)  # (N, channels, sequence length)

        z = []
        max_seq_len = x_in.shape[2]
        for i, f in enumerate(self.filter_sizes):

            # `SAME` padding
            padding_left = int(
                (self.conv[i].stride[0]*(max_seq_len-1) - max_seq_len + self.filter_sizes[i])/2)
            padding_right = int(math.ceil(
                (self.conv[i].stride[0]*(max_seq_len-1) - max_seq_len + self.filter_sizes[i])/2))

            # Conv
            _z = self.conv[i](F.pad(x_in, (padding_left, padding_right)))

            # Pool
            _z = F.max_pool1d(_z, _z.size(2)).squeeze(2)
            z.append(_z)

        # Concat outputs
        z = torch.cat(z, 1)

        # FC
        z = self.fc1(z)
        z = self.dropout(z)
        z = self.fc2(z)

        return z




    

  • VALID: no padding, the filters only use the "valid" values in the input. If the filter cannot reach all the input values (filters go left to right), the extra values on the right are dropped.
    • 

  • SAME: adds padding evenly to the right (preferred) and left sides of the input so that all values in the input are processed.
    • 








We're add SAME padding so that the convolutional outputs are the same shape as our inputs. The amount of padding for the SAME padding can be determined using the same equation. We want out output to have the same width as our input, so we solve for P:


\[ \frac{W-F+2P}{S} + 1 = W \]


\[ P = \frac{S(W-1) - W + F}{2} \]


If \(P\) is not a whole number, we round up (using math.ceil) and place the extra padding on the right side.


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# Initialize model
model = CNN(
    embedding_dim=embedding_dim, vocab_size=vocab_size,
    num_filters=num_filters, filter_sizes=filter_sizes,
    hidden_dim=hidden_dim, dropout_p=dropout_p,
    num_classes=num_classes)
model = model.to(device)
print (model.named_parameters)





<bound method Module.named_parameters of CNN(
  (embeddings): Embedding(39, 128, padding_idx=0)
  (conv): ModuleList(
    (0): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(1,), stride=(1,))
    (1): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(2,), stride=(1,))
    (2): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(3,), stride=(1,))
    (3): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(4,), stride=(1,))
    (4): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(5,), stride=(1,))
    (5): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(6,), stride=(1,))
    (6): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(7,), stride=(1,))
    (7): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(8,), stride=(1,))
    (8): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(9,), stride=(1,))
    (9): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(10,), stride=(1,))
  )
  (dropout): Dropout(p=0.5, inplace=False)
  (fc1): Linear(in_features=1280, out_features=128, bias=True)
  (fc2): Linear(in_features=128, out_features=35, bias=True)
)>



Training


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# Arguments
lr = 2e-4
num_epochs = 100
patience = 10





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# Define loss
class_weights_tensor = torch.Tensor(np.array(list(class_weights.values())))
loss_fn = nn.BCEWithLogitsLoss(weight=class_weights_tensor)





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# Define optimizer & scheduler
optimizer = torch.optim.Adam(model.parameters(), lr=lr)
scheduler = torch.optim.lr_scheduler.ReduceLROnPlateau(
    optimizer, mode="min", factor=0.1, patience=5)





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# Trainer module
trainer = Trainer(
    model=model, device=device, loss_fn=loss_fn,
    optimizer=optimizer, scheduler=scheduler)





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# Train
best_model = trainer.train(
    num_epochs, patience, train_dataloader, val_dataloader)





Epoch: 1 | train_loss: 0.00624, val_loss: 0.00285, lr: 2.00E-04, _patience: 10
Epoch: 2 | train_loss: 0.00401, val_loss: 0.00283, lr: 2.00E-04, _patience: 10
Epoch: 3 | train_loss: 0.00362, val_loss: 0.00266, lr: 2.00E-04, _patience: 10
Epoch: 4 | train_loss: 0.00332, val_loss: 0.00263, lr: 2.00E-04, _patience: 10
...
Epoch: 49 | train_loss: 0.00061, val_loss: 0.00149, lr: 2.00E-05, _patience: 4
Epoch: 50 | train_loss: 0.00055, val_loss: 0.00159, lr: 2.00E-05, _patience: 3
Epoch: 51 | train_loss: 0.00056, val_loss: 0.00152, lr: 2.00E-05, _patience: 2
Epoch: 52 | train_loss: 0.00057, val_loss: 0.00156, lr: 2.00E-05, _patience: 1
Stopping early!



Evaluation


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from pathlib import Path
from sklearn.metrics import precision_recall_curve





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# Threshold-PR curve
train_loss, y_true, y_prob = trainer.eval_step(dataloader=train_dataloader)
precisions, recalls, thresholds = precision_recall_curve(y_true.ravel(), y_prob.ravel())
plt.plot(thresholds, precisions[:-1], "r--", label="Precision")
plt.plot(thresholds, recalls[:-1], "b-", label="Recall")
plt.ylabel("Performance")
plt.xlabel("Threshold")
plt.legend(loc="best")










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# Determining the best threshold
def find_best_threshold(y_true, y_prob):
    """Find the best threshold for maximum F1."""
    precisions, recalls, thresholds = precision_recall_curve(y_true, y_prob)
    f1s = (2 * precisions * recalls) / (precisions + recalls)
    return thresholds[np.argmax(f1s)]





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# Best threshold for f1
threshold = find_best_threshold(y_true.ravel(), y_prob.ravel())
threshold





0.23890994





How can we do better?


How can we improve on our process of identifying and using the appropriate threshold?


Show answer
    

  •  Plot PR curves for all classes (not just overall) to ensure a certain global threshold doesn't deliver very poor performance for any particular class
    • 

  •  Determine different thresholds for different classes and use them during inference
    • 







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# Determine predictions using threshold
test_loss, y_true, y_prob = trainer.eval_step(dataloader=test_dataloader)
y_pred = np.array([np.where(prob >= threshold, 1, 0) for prob in y_prob])





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# Evaluate
metrics = precision_recall_fscore_support(y_test, y_pred, average="weighted")
performance = {"precision": metrics[0], "recall": metrics[1], "f1": metrics[2]}
print (json.dumps(performance, indent=2))





{
  "precision": 0.795787334399384,
  "recall": 0.5944206008583691,
  "f1": 0.6612833723992106
}



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# Save artifacts
dir = Path("cnn")
dir.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
tokenizer.save(fp=Path(dir, "tokenzier.json"))
label_encoder.save(fp=Path(dir, "label_encoder.json"))
torch.save(best_model.state_dict(), Path(dir, "model.pt"))
with open(Path(dir, "performance.json"), "w") as fp:
    json.dump(performance, indent=2, sort_keys=False, fp=fp)





Inference


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# Load artifacts
device = torch.device("cpu")
tokenizer = Tokenizer.load(fp=Path(dir, "tokenzier.json"))
label_encoder = LabelEncoder.load(fp=Path(dir, "label_encoder.json"))
model = CNN(
    embedding_dim=embedding_dim, vocab_size=vocab_size,
    num_filters=num_filters, filter_sizes=filter_sizes,
    hidden_dim=hidden_dim, dropout_p=dropout_p,
    num_classes=num_classes)
model.load_state_dict(torch.load(Path(dir, "model.pt"), map_location=device))
model.to(device)





CNN(
  (embeddings): Embedding(39, 128, padding_idx=0)
  (conv): ModuleList(
    (0): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(1,), stride=(1,))
    (1): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(2,), stride=(1,))
    (2): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(3,), stride=(1,))
    (3): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(4,), stride=(1,))
    (4): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(5,), stride=(1,))
    (5): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(6,), stride=(1,))
    (6): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(7,), stride=(1,))
    (7): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(8,), stride=(1,))
    (8): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(9,), stride=(1,))
    (9): Conv1d(128, 128, kernel_size=(10,), stride=(1,))
  )
  (dropout): Dropout(p=0.5, inplace=False)
  (fc1): Linear(in_features=1280, out_features=128, bias=True)
  (fc2): Linear(in_features=128, out_features=35, bias=True)
)



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# Initialize trainer
trainer = Trainer(model=model, device=device)





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# Dataloader
text = "Transfer learning with BERT for self-supervised learning"
X = np.array(tokenizer.texts_to_sequences([preprocess(text)]))
y_filler = label_encoder.encode([np.array([label_encoder.classes[0]]*len(X))])
dataset = CNNTextDataset(
    X=X, y=y_filler, max_filter_size=max(filter_sizes))
dataloader = dataset.create_dataloader(
    batch_size=batch_size)





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# Inference
y_prob = trainer.predict_step(dataloader)
y_pred = np.array([np.where(prob >= threshold, 1, 0) for prob in y_prob])
label_encoder.decode(y_pred)





[['natural-language-processing',
  'self-supervised-learning',
  'transfer-learning',
  'transformers']]



limitations:


    

  • representation: embeddings are not contextual.
    • 

  • architecture: extracting signal from encoded inputs is limited by filter widths.
    • 





Note


Since we're dealing with simple architectures and fast training times, it's a good opportunity to explore tuning and experiment with k-fold cross validation to properly reach any conclusions about performance.






Tradeoffs


We're going to go with the embeddings via CNN approach and optimize it because performance is quite similar to the contextualized embeddings via transformers approach but at much lower cost.


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# Performance
with open(Path("cnn", "performance.json"), "r") as fp:
    cnn_performance = json.load(fp)
print (f'CNN: f1 = {cnn_performance["f1"]}')





CNN: f1 = 0.6612833723992106



This was just one run on one split so you'll want to experiment with k-fold cross validation to properly reach any conclusions about performance. Also make sure you take the time to tune these baselines since their training periods are quite fast (we can achieve f1 of 0.7 with just a bit of tuning for both CNN / Transformers). We'll cover hyperparameter tuning in a few lessons so you can replicate the process here on your own time. We should also benchmark on other important metrics as we iterate, not just precision and recall.


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# Size
print (f'CNN: {Path("cnn", "model.pt").stat().st_size/1000000:.1f} MB')





CNN: 4.3 MB



We'll consider other tradeoffs such as maintenance overhead, behavioral test performances, etc. as we develop.




Note


Interpretability was not one of requirements but note that we could've tweaked model outputs to deliver it. For example, since we used SAME padding for our CNN, we can use the activation scores to extract influential n-grams.




Resources








To cite this lesson, please use:


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@article{madewithml,
    author       = {Goku Mohandas},
    title        = { Baselines - Made With ML },
    howpublished = {\url{https://madewithml.com/}},
    year         = {2021}
}